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Introduction
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Confucius
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Teachings
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Theory of Government
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Is Confucianism a religion?
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Concept of God
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The Sacred Writings
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Confucianism is a
way of life founded by Confucius (551 – 479 BC) who was a Chinese
sage and wise man. It has traditionally been the substance of
learning, the source of values, and the social code of Chinese as
well as a religion and philosophy. Along with Buddhism and Taoism,
Confucianism occupied prominent place in Chinese society as one of
the great religions. For centuries, China’s neighbours such as
Korea, Japan, and Vietnam also accepted its influence.
Within 300 years
of death of Confucius, his teachings were adopted officially by
the Chinese state, and remained so until 1912. Thus for more than
2000 years Chinese political government, social organization and
individual conduct was shaped by Confucian principles. In 1912,
Confucian philosophy, as a basis of Government was dropped by the
state. Until that the emperor of China was regarded as father of
his people, appointed by heaven to rule, the superior man was
ideal human and filial piety was the chief virtue accompanied by
ancestor worship.
Although as an
official creed or state cult, Confucianism has passed from the
scene in modern China, yet its principles and paradigms remain
embedded in Chinese culture, influencing even interpretations of
Marxist and other philosophical perspectives. No accurate
statistical data is available about the number of its followers
today. However, on the basis of a fair estimate it can be said
that number of its adherents may be approximately 15 millions.
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Confucius (551 –
479 B.C.), the founder of Confucianism was the most famous
teacher, philosopher and political scientist of ancient China, In
the course of China’s long history Confucius stands out as the
most prominent figure. Without any claim to divinity or reference
to supernatural, the teachings of Confucius have exercised such a
molding influence that if the Chinese way of life were to be
characterized in one word it would be “Confucian”. He is revered
among the Chinese as their supreme sage and foremost teacher. His
temple is found in everyone of China’s 2000 counties and few
civilizations of the world can cite a comparable historical
figure.
Confucius was born
in 551 B.C. in the state of Lu, in today’s Shandong province of
china. Born into an impoverished noble family known as Kung, he
was given name Chiu, meaning a hill, because there was a
noticeable protuberance on his head. His literary name was Chung-ni.
However, he is better known to the world by his surname Kung Fu-tzu
meaning Kung the Grand Master. Confucius is the Latinized form of
Kung Fu-tzu.
His father died
when Confucius was 3 year old, and the little kid was left to the
care of his young mother who was his father’s second wife.
Confucius grew up in great poverty. At the age of 15 he developed
his interest in learning. He grew to unusual height by Chinese
standards and people called him ‘long fellow’. Married at the age
of 19, he worked as a minor official but soon after left the job.
Legends say that during young age Confucius called upon Lao-Tzu,
the great Taoist philosopher, who was then serving as the keeper
of imperial archives and had exchange of views.
In his fiftieth
year, he was invited to take public office, and after one year as
a magistrate, he was elevated to the highest position in the state
open to a commoner. There he distinguished himself, but clashed
with the ruling powers by his policy of strengthening the
legitimate authority of the duke of Lu at the expense of the
nobility. As a consequence of this, Confucius was forced into
exile for 13 years, during which, as he traveled among the central
Chinese states, he continued teaching.1
The number of
disciples and pupils grew with Confucius’ reputation as the
sage-teacher of the day. Tradition speaks of 3000 pupils of whom
72 had mastered the 6 arts – rituals, music, archery,
charioteering, literature, and mathematics. A number of his
disciples obtained responsible positions in government on
Confucius’ recommendation. At 67, Confucius was welcomed back to
Lu by the reigning prince at the suggestion of a minister who was
a disciple of Confucius. He spent his remaining years editing the
classical texts and continuing his teaching. In 479 B.C. Confucius
died at 72 and was buried in Ch’ufu with great pomp. His grave has
remained a center of pilgrimage ever since.2
Reflecting on his
intellectual and spiritual progress, Confucius, late in life,
said: “At 15, I set my heart on learning. At 30, I was firmly
established. At 40, I had no more doubts. At 50, I knew the will
of Heaven. At 60, I was ready to listen to it. At 70, I could
follow my heart’s desire without transgressing what was right”
(Analects of Confucius, chap2 section 4).3
Confucius is
revered as the Foremost Teacher of China, because basically he had
a deep conviction in the native integrity and dignity as well as
the equality and educability of all men. The well-known Confucian
saying, “In education there are no class distinctions” (Analects
of Confucius, chap. 15, section 38) follows naturally from the
penetrating observation, “By nature all men are pretty much alike;
it is by custom and habit that they are set apart” (Analects of
Confucius, chap. 17, section 2). Confucius kept an open-door
school, and young men were admitted on the sole consideration of
their eagerness to learn. He saw abundant potential in each of the
students, and in each he sought to develop the total man. The
objective was to help each student to develop his virtue and
talent to the full, and to provide society and government with
leaders.4
Confucius’ method
of instruction was personal and informal. Conversation with
individual student or small groups seemed to be the favorite
practice. Sometimes the same question was given different answers
when different pupils asked it. When his students disagreed with
him, he was not affronted and, sometimes, acknowledged that they
could be right. In spite of his open-minded approach, however, he
did insist on intellectual honesty and alertness. Confucius said:
“Yu, shall I teach you what knowledge is? When you know a thing,
say that you know it; when you do not know a thing, admit that you
do not know it. That is knowledge” (Analects of Confucius, chap. 2
section 17). Confucius did not try to provide all the answers,
even if he had them. Occasionally he merely raised the questions
and required the students to find the answers. He said, “If I hold
up one corner of a square and the student cannot work out the
other three for himself, I won’t go any further” (analects of
Confucius chap. 7, section 8).5
Confucius readily
won the affection and respects of his students, and an inner
circle of disciples stood by him through good and bad fortune.
Evidently tuition was collected from each student according to his
financial circumstance. As it happened, the master’s favorite
disciple was Yen Hui, who was so poverty-stricken that he had “a
single bamboo bowl of millet to eat, a gourdful of water to drink,
living in a back alley” (Analects of Confucius, chap. 6, section
9). Yen Hui died before Confucius. When the news was broken to
Confucius, he burst forth, as he rarely did, “Heaven has bereaved
me, Heaven has bereaved me!” Upon Confucius own death, his
disciples mourned him as they mourned the death of their parents.
This teacher-student rapport and intimacy became a general pattern
in China. When a teacher’s day was instituted in modern China a
few decades ago, September 28, Confucius legendary birthday, was
chosen as the day.6
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Unlike religious
founders, Confucius was conservative and his duty, as he saw it,
was to compile and transmit to posterity the old customs and
manners of Chinese society. He claimed himself to be “a
transmitter and not an innovator” (Analects chapter 7. section 1).
However to consider him merely a transmitter would be a simplistic
approach. It is the humility of the great philosopher to consider
himself a transmitter. Actually he did not merely adopt certain
ideas and ideals from antiquity, but made very original
contribution to Chinese thought. His teachings have come down to
later generation through the Analects (Conversations compiled by
his disciples)
Concept of Jen:
Central point or pivot of Confucian thought is humanity or Jen in
Chinese. Believing in the perfectibility of all persons, Confucius
focused his teachings on his concept of Jen – variously translated
as “love,” “human heartedness,” and “virtue”. In the most complete
sense, jen signified supreme moral achievement and excellence in
character in accord with li (ritual norms) and the principles of
chung (loyalty to one’s true nature). Shu (reciprocity), ye
(righteousness), and hsiao (filial piety).
”Jen is to love
man, Confucius said (Analects of Confucius, chap. 12, section 22).
Jen might also be translated as benevolence, love, manhood, or
human-heartedness. To Confucius, jen is the essence of humanity,
that element in man which makes a man man and which distinguishes
him from an animal. Jen is endowed by nature but should be
cultivated by man, and the greatness of man is measured by the
extent of the development of jen in him. Jen is so essential to
man that the preservation of one’s jen is considered more
important than the preservation of one’s life, and it is so
central in the teaching of Confucius that the system might be said
to be the philosophy of jen.7
The virtue of
filial piety and those of loyalty and reciprocity were also
stressed by Confucius, and they might be regarded as expressions
of jen within the family and in social relations respectively. The
Confucian golden rule has become well known – “Do not do to others
what one does not wish to be done unto” (Analects of Confucius,
chap. 12, section 2), and Confucius also said, “Wishing to be
established oneself he assists others to be established; wishing
to be successful oneself he assists others to be successful”
(Analects of Confucius, chap. 6, section 28). The teachings of
Confucius underline the kinship of all men and advocate the
expression of the spontaneous goodwill toward one another. “Jen is
to love men joyously and from the innermost of one’s heart, runs
an ancient commentary on the Analects. The famous saying. “Within
the four seas, all men are brothers,” (Analects of Confucius,
chap. 12, section 5) comes from a disciple of Confucius.8
Coupled with the
basic concept of jen and the several related virtues was
Confucius’ emphasis on the cultivation of decorum and music – a
twofold emphasis representing the master’s dual feeling for the
moral and the aesthetic. The cultivation of decorum and music
would afford an element of grace in the individual and civility in
society. The proper cultivation and combination of jen and decorum
were the requisites to the perfection of the individual and the
restoration of order out of chaos, according to Confucius.9
Concept of
Superior Man:
The paragon of Confucian virtues is the Confucian
concept of Chun-tzu or the ‘Superior Man’ or a noble or a princely
man. Such a person may not necessarily be of noble birth, but he
is definitely a person who conducts himself nobly.
Confucius
clarified some of the qualities of the superior man by contrasting
them with those of the inferior man. He said: “The superior man is
always calm and at ease; the inferior man is always worried and
full of distress” (Analects of Confucius, chap. 7, section 36).
“The superior man understands what is right; the inferior man
understands what is profitable” (Analects of Confucius chap. 4,
Section 16). “The superior man makes demands on himself; the
inferior man makes demand on others” (Analects of Confucius, chap.
15, section 20).10
The Superior Man
comes into existence when he has developed in himself Five
Constant Virtues, namely: right attitude, right procedure, right
knowledge, right moral courage, and right persistence.
1.
The right attitude is revealed
through conduct. This helps the superior man to be in harmony with
other men as it consists of co-operation and accommodation. This
virtuous attitude is sometimes thought of as an inner law of
self-control.
2.
Right procedure comprises rules of
conduct, etiquettes, and manners. The superior man knows how to
sit, how to stand, how to talk, how to walk and how to control his
facial expressions.
3.
Right knowledge is the third constant
virtue which the Superior Man inculcates in his personality. A
person must be educated in order to respond in the exact way. The
subjects that teach a man correct moral habits are the history,
literature, and the civics that make up the Chinese classics. The
Confucian goal is to grow gradually from memorized rules to
habits.
4.
Right moral courage is the fourth
such virtue. The superior man should develop the moral courage
necessary to remain loyal to himself and charitable toward his
neighbors. His character is such that everything he does makes a
worth-while contribution to society. Through his every deed, human
relationships are improved.
5.
Right persistence is the fifth
constant virtue. Superior man has achieved the other four virtues,
and he persists in his achievement. He is unfailingly kind and
helpful. He knows how to do that duty. Because he has developed
the seeds of virtue within his nature, he is in harmony with
everything in the universe. Because he has harmony within himself,
he is part of cosmic harmony. That is why he is able to do the
right thing at the right time always.11
Concept of
Native Goodness:
Confucianists
often speak of “perfect humanity.” It can be achieved by a person
because of something the Confucianists believe to be present
within each person, even at birth. This is a native goodness or
kindly love that can be developed through feelings of helpfulness
toward others. It was Mencius, the best-known Confucianist of a
later period, who emphasized the native goodness of men. When he
and Confucius spoke of man’s goodness, they meant that he was fit
to live with other people – in the long run. There was quite a
course of preparation first, as we have seen. Behavior, habits,
thought patterns, and judgments had to be improved.12
As part of their
effort to make right living easy for everyone, Confucianists have
stressed five important personal relationships that require
kindness and tact. These were once taught to every schoolboy, but
that system of education was discontinued early in this century.
Still, many Confucianists think that if everyone used the Five
Constant Virtues in these five relationships, a true golden age
would begin. If happiness or harmony is to exist, the ten people
involved in these contacts must use virtuous attitudes and conduct
toward each other:13
(a)
Husband and wife.
(b)
Father and Son
(c)
Elder brother and younger brother
(d)
Ruler and subject
(e)
Friend and friend
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Confucian theory
of government is simple: if the ruler is upright, the people will
imitate him as the grass bends before the breeze, and people from
neighboring tyrannous states will move into a righteously governed
country, so that it will become powerful and dominate the land.
This teaching was his substitute for the earlier doctrine of
rebellion against an unrighteous ruler. Confucius accepted a
personal government, not relying upon laws alone, for unrighteous
men pervert any code of laws; and he maintained that reform must
begin from above, that if a righteous ruler appoints capable
subordinates, there will be good government, that taxation should
be light and taxes should be remitted in times of poor harvests,
that military matters are the least important feature of a state,
and that war is rarely a benevolent activity.14
The Encyclopedia
Americana summarises views of Confucius on governance as follows:
“Confucius’
thoughts on government are grounded on his assumption of the
inviolable sanctity of the individual. He believed that “The
commander of a great army may be carried off, but the will of a
common man cannot be taken from him” (Analects of Confucius chap.
9, section 25). Governments are formed not for the comfort and
enjoyment of the ruler or even for the maintenance of law and
order in the state, but for the happiness and enlightenment of the
people. Thus government becomes inseparable from education, and
the state may be compared with a schoolhouse, and the ruler with a
schoolmaster. And the most effective type of instruction comes
from the personal example on the part of the ruler.”
“When a high
minister asked about government, Confucius, employing a pointed
pun, said, “To govern (cheng) is to set things right (cheng). If
you begin by setting yourself right who will dare to deviate from
the right?” (Analects of Confucius, chap. 12, section 17).
Confucius was convinced that self-rectification on the part of the
ruler is the key to good government. With it all will go well;
without it no matter what orders are given they will not be
obeyed. Therefore, the first duty of a nobleman is “to cultivate
himself so as to give peace and comfort to all the people”
(Analects of Confucius, chap. 14 section 45), a kind of noblesse
oblige. The Confucian political ideal might be called government
by virtue. In practical terms, hereditary rulers should delegate
all administrative power to ministers selected for their talent
and virtue.”
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Is Confucianism a
religion? The World Book Encyclopedia answers the questions in the
negative. It writes:
“Many people
consider Confucianism a religion. But Confucianism has no clergy
and does not teach the worship of a God or gods or the existence
of a life after death. Confucianism can more accurately be
considered a guide to morality and good government.”
However, the views
of Encyclopedia Americana are a little different. It writes:
“Although
Confucianism has sometimes been called a religion, Confucius was
not a founder of religion in the usual sense. He possessed a keen
sense of a universal moral force, which he spoke of as heaven and
the will of heaven, but talked very little about traditional
religion. When a student asked about the worship of ghosts and
spirits, Confucius said, "We don’t know yet how to serve men, how
can we know about serving the spirits?" In reply to the next
question about death, Confucius said, "We don't know yet about
life, how can we know about death?' (Analects of Confucius, Ch.
11, sect. 2).”
“Because of this
note of avoidance, Confucius has been marked as a skeptic or an
agnostic by some, and upheld as a thoroughgoing humanist by
others. It is true that Confucius regarded much of formal religion
as superstition, and showed an eagerness to steer clear from the
prevalent practices of witchcraft and occultism. But he had a
profound feeling and appreciation for the genuine religious
sentiment and spirit in life, just as he also found much aesthetic
enjoyment in religious ritual.”
“Even though
Confucius never wanted to pose as prophet or messenger of God, it
was to a heavenly mission that he dedicated his life. In times of
frustration he placed his reliance on heaven; in times of grief he
cried out to heaven, as he did when he heard of the death of Yen
Hui. Confucius did not discourse on God in anthropomorphic terms
and had little to do with organized religion, but he was himself
what might be called a God-filled man. His reticence regarding
religious matters might at least be partly explained by his
saying, ' Look at Heaven there. Does it speak? The four seasons
run their course and all things are produced. Does Heaven speak?”
(Analects of Confucius, Ch.17, sect. 19).”
The authors of
“Great Religions By Which Men Live” focus on this issue as under:
“Confucius did
not seek to change or even to say much about the religious beliefs
and practices of his day. He simply accepted them as they were-in
so far as they served society. However,
Confucius
encouraged ancestor reverence or worship because he believed that
it helped a person to develop proper attitudes and conduct. When a
person offers gifts before a plaque in memory of a departed
ancestor, he remembers his origin and his love. This experience
draws from him feelings of respect and loyalty. For a person to
carry filial piety beyond death shows an even greater degree of
devotion than simply to honor living parents.”
“Many
Confucianists offered gifts and sacrifices in honor of the dead
without ever believing that the spirits of the dead were present.
Confucianists found it worth-while because it helped them to build
good habits of respect for others. At the same time, this adds
strength to society. For these two reasons, Confucianism includes
ancestor reverence among the important aspects of human behavior.”
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The authors of
the book, “The Great Religions By which men live”, highlight the
attitude of Confucius and his followers about concept of God as
under:
“Confucius was
not concerned with ideas about God and other problems in theology.
But he had a real devotion to the ancient religious ceremonies,
because he believed that they helped to build the habits and
attitudes necessary to proper conduct. His personal religion was
limited to reverence of ancestors, the moral life of the Five
Constant Virtues, and recognition and reverence of a just Heaven
above. For the most part, Confucius passed on the ancient Chinese
religion, which was a blend of reverence for nature gods and
ancestors.”
“Large numbers of
the Chinese people worship Heaven as a supreme god or as one of
many gods, with interpretations as varied as those given to any
other god. The worship of the Heaven-god has been an imperial
worship, administered throughout Chinese history by the Emperor
with seasonal ceremonies. Very few Confucianists, along with other
educated Chinese, actively joined in worshiping Heaven. However,
they tended to support the imperial ceremonies as being
worth-while because they might help people to remember their
origin.”
“Many people have
asked: Is Confucianism a religion? Confucius himself did not claim
that what he was teaching was religion. He did not expect a
revelation from Heaven as authority for what he taught. He told
his followers that it was good to be in awe of Heaven because it
was an intelligent, creating force that moved in a perfectly
natural way, through the Tao. Heaven was impartial and just. Later
Confucianists added the belief that Heaven was a personal god, but
one who exerted no influence on men or on the world he created.
Still the major focus of Confucianism has always been on humanity.
Mencius described the will of Heaven in terms of what it means to
men by saying that being true to its nature is Heaven's way.
Trying to be true to his nature should also be the way of men.”
The Encyclopedia
Americana enlightens us about the view-point of Confucius
regarding religion and God as under:
“Confucius the
great sage of China, taught a humanistic wisdom, a morality of
ordered relationship, and a political ethic. Whether Confucianism
is a religion or has a conception of God can be debated. Certainly
the savings of Confucius indicate a deference to Heaven which
sometimes seems to be an equivalent of God. But Confucius is
somewhat agnostic on metaphysical questions. Popular Confucianism
has included worship of Heaven, of ancestors, and even of
Confucius – as a sage, not usually as a god.
The Collier’s
Encyclopedia highlights Confucian concept of God as follows:
“In Confucian
philosophy the terms Heaven and God are synonymous, implying a
supreme spiritual being or state. Confucius was no metaphysician,
and he said as little about his own religious beliefs as did
Socrates. He seems to have had a deep trust in a supreme God
Heaven, who, he believed, had commissioned him to teach his people
and who would protect him in danger. His attitude towards the
ancestral spirits and minor gods is not clear. Either he did not
believe they existed or he considered them mere angels of Heaven.
He accepted ancestor worship and the state religious cult because
they had been ordained by the sages, but did not place any
superstitious trust in them. He did maintain that requests for
special favors from these divinities are useless and that Heaven's
will cannot be altered by human prayers. He refused to discuss the
question of life after death.”
Although
Confucius never spoke clearly about concept of God and never
worshipped any God, however he himself came to be worshipped after
his death. The authors of “Great Religions by Which Men Live”
write:
“Immediately
following his death, Confucius was worshiped as an ancestor by
members of his family. Others joined in the reverence, because in
China a great teacher is given the same respect as a parent. It
was always his teachings that interested his admirers, never any
magical deeds or superhuman qualities. Confucius has been
worshiped as a god, but this was the worship of the unschooled
people, who believe that the important thing is to worship
plentifully, not thoughtfully. Perhaps this kind of worship could
be described as a special hero worship.”
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Beliefs and
practices of Confucianism are based on ancient Chinese texts known
as Wu Ching or Five Classics and Shih Shu or Four books compiled
by disciples of Confucius. Five Classics are – Book of History,
Book of Poetry, Book of Rites, Book of Changes, and Annals of
Spring and Autumn. The first four of these classics are stated to
have been edited by Confucius while the last one is believed to
have been written by him.
The Four Books
which were compiled by the disciples of Confucius after his death
are: Analects of Confucius, the Great Learning, the Doctrine of
the Mean and the Book of Mencius. The Doctrine of the Mean is
attributed to Tzu Ssu, the grandson of Confucius. The book of
Mencius is a collection of the writings and sayings of Mencius the
most original thinker of the earlier Confucian philosophers and
dates from the third century B.C.
The Analects
(Conversations) is the most important source of material on
Confucius and Confucianism. It comprises of sayings of Confucius
and of some of his disciples.
The Four books
and the Five Classics are the Confucian texts and have for
centuries served as the syllabus for education in China – the Four
books at the primary level and the Five Classics at the secondary
level.
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REFERENCES
1- Collier’s Encyclopedia
2 to
10- Encyclopedia Americana
11 to
13- Great Religions By Which Men Live
14- Collier’s Encyclopedia
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