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Introduction
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Sacred Writings
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Concept of God
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Creation of Universe
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Beliefs
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Worship and Rituals
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Caste
System
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Philosophy
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Miscellaneous
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Hinduism is one of
the world’s oldest living religions, as old as Judaism if not
more. It is also one of the world’s great religions claiming
highest numbers of adherents after Christianity and Islam. It is
professed by more than 800 million people called Hindus worldwide,
vast majority of which live only in one country of the world,
India. There are also numerically considerable Hindu communities
living in Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Kenya, South Africa and Trinidad.
Hindu beliefs originated in the Indus Valley civilization
established by the dark skinned Dravidians who invaded India
between 3250 and 2750 B.C. But much of the tradition that is now
associated with what is Hinduism stems from the ritual and
religion of the Aryans, a light skinned Nordic people who invaded
India from Asia Minor and Iran between 2500 and 1500 B.C and
subdued the Dravidians. The language of these Aryan people was
Vedic, parent of Sanskrit, in which their religious literature,
the Vedas, came to be written after many centuries of oral
transmission!1 Hinduism in its various manifestations
is poly-theistic but has a concept of the supreme spirit, the
Brahman. Although Hinduism is a religion but it is much more. It
includes not only theology but also social institutions, a legal
tradition, a vast body of literature and art, some science and a
great and varied mass of philosophy.2
Unlike most of the
other religions such as Christianity, Buddhism and Confucianism,
Hinduism cannot name its founder nor it has any fixed scriptural
canon, nor it has any formalized creeds or standardized forms of
worship. It developed gradually over thousands of years, and many
cultures, races and religions helped shape it.
Hinduism
encompasses a broad variety of beliefs and practices, not all of
which are shared by all Hindus, and many of which actually
contradict each other. It is probably unique among the religions
of the world in its tolerance of diversity. It is a completely
decentralized religion, with no hierarchy of clergy and no supreme
authority. As Hinduism developed, it continually absorbed and
reinterpreted the beliefs and practices of the different peoples
with whom it came into contact. This process of assimilation
occurred differently in different parts of India; as a result,
Hinduism also displays a great regional heterogeneity.3
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Hinduism has no
single book, such as the Bible or the Qur’an, that serves as the
source of its doctrines. Hinduism in fact, has many sacred
writings, all of which have contributed to its fundamental
beliefs. There are two main categories of Hindu scriptures, sruti,
or divinely revealed works, and smriti, traditional works of
acknowledged human authorship. All of the Sruti literature is in
Sanskrit, the language of ancient India; the smriti literature
uses both Sanskrit and regional vernacular languages.4
The major sruti
works are the Vedas, the Brahmanas, and the Upanishads; whereas
the major smriti works are Ramayana, the Mahabharata, the
Bhagavad-Gita and the Manu Smriti.
The Vedas are the
oldest Hindu scriptures. The teachings of Vedas existed for
centuries before they were finally written down. The Vedas
belonged to Indo-Aryans comprising of hymns and prayers who gave
voice to the religious conceptions of those people. The Vedas
(meaning knowledge) are four in number: the Rig Veda, Sama Veda,
Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda. The Rig-Veda is oldest of them and
seems to have been reduced to writing by around 1000 B.C. It
contains over a thousand hymns which are prayers addressed to
nature deities, prominent of them being Indira (the god of rain),
the Rudra (the most feared mountain god) and Varuna (the sky god).
The Yajur Veda preserves the prose formulas used in early rituals;
Sama Veda deals with the chants belonging to it, and the Atharva
Veda provides for private and household religion. The Vedas are
held as uncreated and eternal.
Some writers
treat Brahmanas and Upanishads parts of Vedas, but mostly they are
treated as independent. The Brahmanas are a voluminous body of
literature comprising directions for the conduct of sacrifices and
rituals, written around 700 B.C. The Upanishads are appendages of
the Brahmanas and are difficult treatises in the form of
dialogues.
The Puranas
(ancient stories) alongwith Tantras are long verse stories that
contain many important Hindu myths. The Puranas include stories
about Hindu gods and goddesses and the lives of great Hindu
heroes. They also describe the Hindu beliefs about how the world
began and how it periodically ends and is reborn.5
The Ramayana is an
epic poem which tells the story of Rama Chandra who is regarded
seventh incarnate (Avatar) of Hindu god Vishnu. Hanuman, the
monkey god, helped Rama rescue Sita – Rama’s wife – whom the demon
king Ravana had abducted to Ceylon. The Mahabharata tells about
the war between Kuru princes and the Pandavas. It includes
religious Lyric Bhagavad-Gita (the song of the blessed lord) whose
hero and speaker is Krishna, eighth incarnate (Avatar) of god
Vishnu. Krishna’s wife, the milkmaid, Radha and Krishna’s friend
Arjan are also mentioned in this book. The Gita has been more
admired and more used for devotional and intellectual needs than
other Hindu sacred writings. Its historical significance lies in
its endorsement of Bhagti as a true way of nirvana (salvation).
The Manu Smriti
or Code of Manu is a basic source of Hindu religious and social
law. It was composed as a collection of rules of life by Hindu
priests around 200 B.C. The code prescribes a long list of rites
to be observed by each individual covering each significant event
of life. It sanctions custom of Sutee (the wife would burn herself
alive on the death of her husband on the same funeral pyre) and
sets fourth the basis of caste system.
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Hinduism is a
polytheistic religion and the Hindus worship many Gods.
The Aryans of the
Vedic era worshipped nature deities chief of them being Indira
(god of rain and storm). Agni (god of fire), and Surya (the sun)
were also worshipped. Their religion contained no idolatry but
became contaminated by the beliefs of the conquered Dravidians who
were polytheists. The old Vedic gods thereafter remained no longer
worshipped.
Gradually, some
Hindus came to believe that, though divinities appear in separate
forms, these forms are part of one universal spirit called
Brahman. These Hindus believe that many divinities make up
Brahman. The most important ones are Brahma, the creator of the
universe; Vishnu, its preserver; and Shiva, its destroyer.6
These three
divinities form together Trimurti or Hindu Trinity. Of the divine
Trinity, Brahma, the creator is the least widely worshipped. The
other two gods are perhaps equally worshipped claiming vast
majority of adherents and thousands of temples are devoted to
their worship.
Vishnu,
in Vedic
mythology, is a solar deity. He comes to earth in the form of
avatars or incarnations and is most popular particularly in such
forms. At the end of each cycle or age in creation, Shiva destroys
the old world and then Brahma creates a new world. When, during
the cycle, men face a problem they cannot solve alone, Vishnu
comes in the form of a human being or in any other form, with
special powers to give the necessary aid.
Vishnu is
generally represented in art as dark blue in color, bearing in his
four hands his symbols: the conch, the discus, the mace, and the
lotus. Sometimes he is resting on the coils of a many-headed
snake, Ananda, with his wife, Lakshmi, the goddess of fortune,
sitting at his feet and the Brahma-bearing lotus growing from his
navel.7
Vishnu’s most
loved and worshipped incarnations in the forms of human being so
far are Rama (the hero of Ramayana) and Krishna (the warrior hero
of Mahabharata). The incarnations or Avatars of Vishnu have been
traditionally set at ten. Nine Avatars are said to have already
appeared – he came in the form of dwarf, a fish, a tortoise, a
boar, a man – lion, Rama, Krishna, a Brahman warrior – hero and
Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism. The inclusion of Buddha
among Vishnu’s avatars is typical of Hinduism’s tendency to
assimilate all faiths; some Hindus add Christ to the list as yet
another avatar.
The avatars of
Vishnu most widely worshiped, especially in northern India, are
Rama and Krishna. Rama, the princely hero of the epic Ramayana, is
the perfect ruler, and his wife Sita is the ideal of Hindu
womanhood. Because of the devotion of this couple to each other,
young married couples are often called Sita-Ram. Krishna, the most
frequent object of Bhakti, is worshiped as a powerful but
mischievous child, as a dark-skinned erotic youth who plays his
flute and sports with the milkmaids, especially with Radha, his
favorite, and as the adult hero of the Mahabharata epic and
preacher of the Bhagavad-Gita.8
Tenth time he is
yet to come as a ‘Kalki’, a messiah with a sword of flame riding
on a white horse to save the righteous and destroy the wicked at
the end of the Kali (the fourth and the depraved world period)!
Vishnu’s mistress or wife is Lakshmi, the lovely goddess of
fortune and beauty who is honored and worshipped as goddess of
prosperity.
Siva,
the Destroyer has many aspects. His devotees, the Shaivites, hold’
that destruction necessarily precedes creation and that Siva is,
therefore, also the god of creation and change. Siva is portrayed
in many different ways. Sometimes he is seen as an ash-white
ascetic in a state of perpetual meditation, seated on a tiger skin
high in the Himalayas. Cobras coil his neck and arms. The crescent
moon is fixed to his matted topknot of hair, from which springs
the sacred River Ganges. Sometimes he is Nataraja, who whirls
about gracefully, maintaining the cosmos by his unending dance.
Siva is often accompanied by his wife Parvati and his bull, Nandi,
which serves as his mount. He is most frequently worshiped as a
simple rounded post, usually of stone. This post is the lingam, or
phallic emblem, of Siva and may indicate his origin as a fertility
god.9
His character is
most complex. The sex-energy which is identified with him is
represented by symbols like linga (male organ) and yoni (female
organ) whom worshippers of Shiva approach in their temples for
devout worship. Shiva is also regarded to represent life-energy in
all its aspects. His spouse is many persons in one: As Parbati and
Oma, she is kind and loving mother. As Durga and Kali, she is help
but may be terrible at once. Shiva’s sons-Skanda, god of war, and
Ganesha, the elephant headed god who removes obstacles, are also
popular deities. Worship of the female generative principle,
personified as Shakti (power) is known as Shaktism.
Besides the above
discussed divine trinity, common Hindus of India honour or worship
anything which is of benefit or harm. They can be limitlessly
polytheistic holding sacred or worshipping trees and stones
ancestral spirits; number of vegetation; fertility god lings;
divinities of disease or misfortunes; the sun and the moon;
animals such as monkeys, the peacock, the Cobra, the cow, the
tiger, the horse; rivers such as the Ganges and the Jamna;
Mountains such as the Himalaya and the Vindhya ranges, etc. Some
conservative estimates place number of Hindu deities at 330
million. We can safely say that there are as many Hindu deities as
number of Hindus worldwide.
Cow
is held in
highest veneration in India. Monier – Williams has written what is
often quoted as the Classic summary of Hindu cow – worship. He
says: “The cow is of all animals the most sacred. Every part of
its body is inhabited by some deity or other. Every hair on its
body is inviolable. All its excreta are hallowed. Not a particle
ought to be thrown away as impure. On the contrary, the water it
ejects ought to be preserved as the best of all holy waters – a
sin-destroying liquid which sanctifies everything it touches,
while nothing purifies like cow-dung. Any spot which a cow has
condescended to honour with the sacred deposit of her excrement is
for ever afterwards consecrated ground, and the filthiest place
plastered with it is at once cleansed and freed from pollution,
while its ashes, when sprinkled over a sinner, immediately convert
him into a saint.”10
Mahatma Gandhi
justified cow-protection, which to him was central fact of
Hinduism, as follows: “Cow-protection is to me one of the most
wonderful phenomena in human evolution. It takes the human being
beyond his species. The cow to me means-the entire subhuman world.
Man through the cow is enjoined to realize his identity with all
that lives. She is the mother to millions of Indian mankind.”11
The authors of
“Great Religions By which Men Live” highlight Hindu concept of God
as follows:
“The Hindus use
THAT to refer to the supreme One, Brahman. They use the neuter
pronoun in order to avoid any idea of a manlike God or Creator or
First Principle. They believe that Brahman is the ultimate reality
behind and beyond all the things that men find to be “real” from
experiencing them through the senses.”
“This is a
different idea about God from that of most Christians and Jews.
Many use the term “God” to mean a personalized God – that is, a
God who has characteristics like a person. For example, we are
familiar with expressions like, “God loves,” “God is merciful,”
“the face of God,” “the hand of God.” Hindus say that such
personal descriptions are qualities people admire in other people,
and since they believe that God is infinitely good, people surmise
that God has unlimited amounts of these admirable qualities. But,
say the Hindus, God–if we use that term to mean the reality and
the true nature of the universe–is beyond such human
representation. And that is what they mean by Brahman, or THAT.”
“In the Hindu religion, there are personal gods to be worshiped by those
persons who so desire. Often it is these gods about which we are
told most in writings on Hinduism. According to Hindu myths, the
gods have wives (who are also worshipped), and they live almost
like human beings. Out of a large number of gods, three are
worshiped most by present-day; Hindus. The three together form a
Hindu trinity: Brahma, the creator, Vishnu, the savior; Shiva, the
destroyer and restorer.”
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About the Hindu
view regarding origin, composition and course of Universe, the
colliers Encyclopedia writes:
“The Hindu
scriptures contain several different descriptions of the origin
and composition of the universe. One theory postulates that in the
beginning the creator god Brahma formed the world from primeval
matter. Another holds that the world emerged complete from a
golden embryo. A third theory maintains that everything in the
world was formed from the essence of the universal spirit,
Brahman. Physically, the universe is shaped like an egg. It is
divided into 21 zones, of which the earth is the seventh from the
top. The course of the universe through time is cyclical. Every
event has occurred before and will occur again. This theory
applies not only to the life of the individual in his course of
rebirths but also to the history of society, the lives of the
gods, and the evolution of the entire cosmos.”
“The smallest
units in the Hindu cosmic cycle are yugas, or world ages. There
are four of these, and each is progressively shorter and
represents a diminution in the total dharma, or moral order, of
the universe. The krita yuga, which is the era of perfection, is
1,728,000 years in duration; the treta yuga, in which dharma is
reduced by one quarter, is three quarters as long, 1,296,000
years; in the dvapara yuga dharma is reduced to one half, and its
length is only 864,000 years; the final era, the kali yuga, in
which dharma is reduced to one quarter, lasts for only 432,000
years. The present era is a kali yuga; it began on Friday, Feb.
18, 3102 B.C. The kali yuga, when it draws to a close, will be
characterized by the breakdown of social classes, the end of
worship, and disrespect for scripture, sages, and moral standards.
When these degradations have become overwhelming, the yuga will
end with flood, fire, and war. Then the entire cycle of four yugas,
known as the mahayuga, or great yuga, will begin again, to unfold
for another 4,320,000,000 years.”
“One thousand
mahayugas–4,320,000,000 years—constitute a kalpa, a single day in
the life of the god Brahma. At the end of each such day all matter
in the universe is reabsorbed into the universal spirit, and
during the night of Brahma, also one kalpa in length, matter
persists only as a potential for reappearance. At each dawn,
Brahma reemerges from a lotus, which grows from the navel of the
god Vishnu, and matter is formed again. The present age is the
first day of the 51st year of Brahma. The year is made up of 360
such days and nights. Brahma lives for 100 years. Then a total
dissolution of the universe occurs and all spheres of being become
totally without existence and remain in that state for another
Brahma century. Finally, Brahma is reborn, and the immense cycle
lasting for 311,040,000,000,000 years begins anew.”
“In the
continually evolving, ever-recurring Hindu cosmos, only one stable
entity, Brahman, the universal spirit, fills all space and time.
All other entities, such as matter and mind, are emanations of
brahman and are therefore maya, or illusion. Brahman is the
absolute–indivisible, unchangeable, impersonal, neuter, and beyond
any conceptions of good or evil. Because of Brahman’s
comprehensive and all pervading nature, atman, the individual
self, or soul, is identified inseparably with Brahman. Even more,
Brahman is atman. Only the veil of Maya, the illusory world of the
senses, keeps man from genuinely understanding this identity, but
this identity is the foundation of all existence.”
Encyclopedia
Americana highlights the Hindu idea of the nature of universe as
follows:
“To some Hindus all phenomenal existence is only relatively real–these are
adherents to pure monism. Others may accept much simpler concepts.
Probably the greatest number of those who recognize authority in
the Hindu scriptures accept in some form, though often with
considerable modification, the theory of the Puranas concerning
the recurring dissolution (pralaya) of the universe and its
recreation (pratisarga). The elements of the universe are matter (prakrti),
which has three qualities (guna): goodness (sattva), passion
(rajas), and darkness (tamas). Against matter is contrasted spirit
(purusa). From these, under impulse from the self-existent
masculine Brahma, who is sometimes equated with matter or spirit
or with both, evolve all the gods, all other animate creatures,
the earth, the heavens, and the hells.”
“The Rig Veda
presents the universe as being in two main parts. One is that
which men and gods inhabit; it contains light, heat, and moisture
and itself has three parts, namely, the surface of the earth, the
atmosphere, and the vault of heaven. This is called the sat
(“existent”). The other main part is a place of darkness and
horror called the sat (“nonexistent”), where demons lurk by day
and whence they emerge by night. The central theme of Vedic
mythology is the conflict between Indra, the champion of the gods
and their king, and Vritra (Vrtra, “the encloser”),
personification of the hard covering within which were originally
contained the elements needed for creation of the sat. Vritra is
usually described as a serpent, the malevolent leader of the
demons. Indra slew him with his weapon (vajra) or, as is
frequently said, burst open his belly. Out flowed the waters (apas),
often described complimentarily as cows, to fill the celestial
ocean. Marvelously they were pregnant with the sun. The universe
now had moisture, light, and warmth, and creation could take
place. Order (rta) was established and put under the
administration of Varuna, and in due time man was created. Every
creature–man or god–had a personal function to fulfill as part of
order. When he fulfilled it, he was living in accord with the sat
and so achieving his highest good.”
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Besides believing
in many gods including Trinity (of gods comprising Brahma, Siva
and Vishnu) and in sacred books (which we have already discussed
in preceding sections), the Hindus also believe in reincarnation
or transmigration of souls (Samsara), in law of Karma (actions or
deeds), principle of Dharma, and in Moksha (release from the cycle
of rebirths). In this section we will discuss these beliefs
briefly.
Reincarnation:
Behind the ever-changing physical world is one universal,
unchanging, everlasting spirit, known as Brahman. The soul, or
atman, of every being in the universe, including the gods, is part
of this spirit. At death the soul does not perish but passes, or
transmigrates, to another body, where it is reincarnated as a new
life.12
Karma:
The fortunes
of the soul in each rebirth are determined by its behavior in
former lives. This law of Karma (literally “action”) states that
no sin ever goes unpunished and no virtue remains unrewarded; if a
man does not receive punishment or reward in this life, he will in
some succeeding life. By his behavior a man determines whether his
rebirth will be in a higher station or lower, whether he will be
reborn as a man, as a god, or as the lowest insect.13
Dharma:
Proper conduct, or morality, which governs a man’s rebirths, is
known as dharma. Hinduism lays down very specific rules of dharma,
including special behavior appropriate to the members of each
caste. In addition to morality and right conduct, it also
signifies quality and duty. Dharma is eternal and immutable. It is
also specific. All things, animate and inanimate, were assigned
dharma at creation. The dharma of gold is yellow color and
brightness; the dharma of a tiger is ferocity and eating other
animals Man’s dharma, man-ava-dharma, encompasses essential human
qualities and characteristics as well as the conduct proper for
every man. It includes respect for priests and scriptures,
speaking the truth, abstaining from taking life, performance of
meritorious acts, and worship of gods. A man must also follow
other dharmas, depending on his position in life. He must follow
the ordained norms of his nation, of his tribe or caste, of his
clan, and of his family.14
Faithful
fulfillment of dharma is, in popular belief, the best way to
improve one’s condition in future lives. Thus, for most Hindus,
especially the uneducated, dharma is the major goal of life. Since
dharma is generally synonymous with custom, the result has been a
powerful adherence to tradition, especially to that of caste.15
Moksha:
Escape from the cycle of existence is called release or extinction
(nirvana “blowing out”) of sorrow, and is the theoretical goal of
every being. However, the means of achieving release are so
arduous that only the most iron willed can pursue it; most Hindus
hope only to win some improvement in the next existence.16
Philosophic
Hinduism has recognized at different periods in history a number
of techniques for achieving moksha. Al-though all of these are
equally valid paths (margas) to salvation, three have achieved
particular acceptance and sanction in the scriptures.17
The Path of
Action (karma-marga) is the simplest path and the closest to the
doctrine of dharma. Salvation by the karma-marga calls for a life
of deeds and actions appropriate to one’s station in life. But all
actions must be performed selflessly, that is, without regard to
gratification of personal desire. Such a life leads to detachment
from the self and to union with brahman.18
The Path of
Devotion (bhakti-marga) brings salvation through uncompromising
devotion and faith to a personal god. Very often the object of
devotion is the god Vishnu, or Krishna, one of his incarnations.
Such devotion draws the believer closer to brahman (of which the
god is a manifestation) and can generate the insight of the unity
of all existence in brahman.19
The Path of
Knowledge (jnana-marga) is the most sophisticated and difficult
path to salvation. It calls for direct insight into the ultimate
truth of the universe: the unity of brahman and atman. Such
insight generally follows a long period of spiritual and physical
discipline, which involves the renunciation of all worldly
attachments and a rigorous course of ascetic and mystical
practices.20
One of the most
important such courses used by the follower of jnana-marga
consists of a number of techniques known collectively by the name
yoga. Yoga is a Sanskrit word meaning union or discipline; it is
cognate with the English word “yoke.” The goal of the
practitioner, called a yogi or yogin, is achievement of a state of
samadhi, or dissolution of the personality, as a means of knowing
brahman. The rigorous course of training followed by a yogi is
nearly always directed by a guru, or spiritual teacher. It
includes strict adherence to prescribed moral virtues, such as
truthfulness, nonviolence, and chastity, training in control of
the body and obliteration of the sense perceptions, extreme mental
concentration, and meditation.21
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Worship in
Temple:
Places of worship
range from the most primitive of wayside shrines, consisting of a
stone set under a sacred tree and daubed with paint, symbolizing
some form of divinity, to the most elaborate complex of structures
constituting an enormous temple.22
Hinduism
considers temples as buildings dedicated to divinities. Its
followers worship as individuals, not as congregations. Most Hindu
temples have many shrines, each of which is devoted to a divinity.
Each temple also has one principal shrine devoted to a single
important god or goddess.23
The shrines
portray the divinities in sculptured images. Hindus treat these
images as living human beings. Every day, for example, priests
wash and dress the images and bring them food. Hindus do not
consider this custom idol worship. They believe the divinities are
actually present in the images.24
In the temples,
ritual may be elaborate, involving the use of Sanskrit verses
recited by scholarly priests, but many village priests know no
Sanskrit and confine themselves to the use of vernaculars.25
Worship at
home:
Although temple worship does occur, Hinduism is not basically a
congregational religion. Most Hindu religious activity centers in
the home, involving only an individual, or perhaps a few friends
or relatives.26
The most common
type of religious rite is the puja, or worship service. In nearly
every Hindu home there are sacred pictures or images of favored
gods before which the puja prayers are chanted, hymns sung, and
offerings made. In the simplest homes puja is a modest ceremony.
The mother of the household recites prayers at dawn and rings a
small bell before several bazaar-bought colored pictures of the
gods in one corner of her room. In the richer house-holds puja may
involve elaborate offerings of food, flowers and incense in a
family shrine room containing decorated altars, icons of one or
more gods and goddesses, and a sacred perpetual fire. In such
homes a family priest, or purohit, may be called in on special
occasions to aid in the puja. Such devotional services are
performed particularly among adherents of the bhakti stream of
Hinduism.27
Many observances
of Hinduism take place in the home. Most homes have a shrine
devoted to a divinity chosen by the family. The homes of some
wealthy Hindus have a room used only for worship. In most homes,
the husband or wife conducts the daily family worship. A number of
important religious ceremonies are performed at home, including
the one in which boys officially become members of the Hindu
community. Others include marriage ceremonies and rituals
connected with pregnancy and childbirth.28
Worship may
consist of offerings of flowers, fruit, grain, ghee (Hindi ghi,
clarified butter), money, and, in some connections, animal
sacrifice. A worshiper may appeal to the deity directly or through
the agency of a priest. Worship is usually individual; an
exception is the chanting of religious lyrics by a group under the
stress of devotional emotion. To indicate their cult affiliation
the worshipers often have colored marks painted on their foreheads
and occasionally on their bodies. Shaivites typically mark
themselves with three horizontal white lines, while Vaishnavas use
a white V bisected by a vertical red line.29
Religious
authority vests in the Brahmans (brahmana) who besides being
custodians of the sacred learning constitute the priesthood. They
officiate at religious ceremonies in homes or temples and are
other men’s vicars in dealing with the deities. As astrologers
they cast horoscopes and then interpret them throughout a person’s
life to determine auspicious and inauspicious moments and
conditions for specific undertakings.30
Daily Life:
Many
family rites center on the important transitions of life. The
family priest, generally a Brahmin for the higher castes,
officiates at these rites, reciting from the sacred scriptures and
directing the offerings to the gods. The birth ceremony takes
place before the umbilical cord is cut, and about 10 days later
there is a naming rite. Among the highest castes, the upanayana
rite is performed when a boy reaches puberty. At that time he is
invested with a sacred thread, which he wears across one shoulder
for the rest of his life. The lengthy and complex Hindu marriage
ceremony requires the couple to walk around a sacred fire with
their garments knotted together. The couple recites vows of an
eternal bond. In most parts of India widows may not remarry, and
formerly many high-caste Hindu widows burned themselves on their
husband’s funeral pyres. Most Hindus dispose of the dead by
cremation. The corpse is burned shortly after death and the ashes
are thrown into the Ganges or another sacred river. For about 12
days after the cremation, members of the family give daily
offerings of rice balls and milk to the deceased to prevent his
ghost from doing harm. Among the orthodox of the highest castes
this shraddha rite is performed periodically by descendants of the
deceased for several generations.31
For the higher
castes Hinduism prescribes a life ordered in four stages. The
first stage begins at puberty when a boy becomes a student,
studying the scriptures under a guru. In the second stage he
marries and becomes a householder, supporting his family and
producing sons. At about the time he has grandchildren, the
householder enters a new stage, becoming a forest hermit,
withdrawn from society to study and meditate. Finally he becomes a
sannyasi, or wandering religious mendicant, free from all ties of
the world. Few Hindus actually observe these stages, but there is
a widespread awareness of them. Occasionally, wealthy men retire
in middle age and spend the rest of their lives in quiet
meditation and good works.32
Festivals:
Communal and temple ceremonies are more elaborate than domestic
worship. Congregants gather to sing hymns and to read responsively
with the priests from the Ramayana epic and other traditional
literature. Festivals devoted to the temple gods are attended by
pilgrims from a large area. In the temple a procession of temple
servants with flutes, drums, and torches may ceremoniously escort
the god to the shrine of his goddess to spend the night. There is
often singing, dancing, and recitation from the epics. The largest
temple festivals, such as the Jagannatha festival in Puri, Orissa,
draw pilgrims from all over India. A huge image of Jagannatha,
horselike form of Vishnu (and the source of the English word
“juggernaut”), is placed on a wooden cart and pulled by devotees
through the streets of the city.33
Pilgrimage is an
important feature of Hindu religious life. There are hundreds of
sacred places in India where the faithful can go to participate in
temple festivals and religious fairs and to bathe in sacred
rivers. The most important sacred places are Banaras (Varanasi),
Hardwar, Mathura, and Allahabad in northern India; and Madura,
Kancheepuram, and Ujjain in central and southern India.34
The calendar of
festivals varies from one part of India to another. Perhaps the
most widely celebrated festival is Divali, held in late October or
early November. It is primarily a New Year festival but has other
special significance in different regions. During Divali,
ceremonial clay lamps are lit, presents are exchanged, and prayers
are typically addressed to Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and good
fortune. Holi, a spring festival, is marked by street dancing and
processions, bonfires, and generally unrestrained festivities.
Celebrants throw colored powders at each other and squirt each
other with colored water. Other popular festivals include Dashara,
celebrated by north Indian Vaishnavas; the Ganapati Festival of
Maharashtra; the Dolayatra, or Swing Festival, of Orissa; and
Pongal, the Rice-Boiling Festival, of southern India.35
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Indian term for
caste is Varna or Jati. Hinduism has developed a hereditary caste
system as its social structure. The caste system began about 1500
B.C. when Aryan invaders from central Asia entered India. They
developed the caste system to limit contact between themselves and
the native Indian people. Later, the system gained ground and came
to stay.
Religious
Sanction:
This caste system
has a powerful religious sanction. In a late hymn of the Rig-Veda,
one of Hinduism’s most sacred scriptures, there is described the
emergence of four social classes (varnas) from the sacrifice of a
primeval man at the time of creation. From his head appeared the
priests and teachers (Brahmins); from his arms, the warriors (Kshatriyas);
from his trunk, the merchants, artisans, and farmers (Vaishyas);
and from his feet, the menial laborers (Sudras). Just as the
scriptures state that one’s varna is determined by Karma, so the
majority of Hindus feel that one’s position in the hierarchy of
castes is a direct result of one’s behavior in previous lives. If
a man performs the duties of his caste (jati-dharma) diligently,
he may improve his caste position in a future rebirth.36
Thus there are
four main castes mentioned in the Hindu writings. In descending
order of social worth they are: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and
Shudras. They are briefly described as under:
Brahmins:
At the
top is the class of Brahmins, in whom lies the religious
leadership. They constitute not more than 7% of the Hindu
community but they constitute the highly privileged group. They
are traditionally regarded as the codifiers and formulators of the
philosophy sanctioning the system and directors of the mechanism
to enforce its rules. The Brahmins are a scholarly and learned
class who are the custodians and interpreters of the scriptures.
They form the priesthood, lead the worship and officiate at
religious ceremonies.
The ‘Code of
Manu’ placed the Brahmin in the position of “the lord of this
whole creation,” whose birth is “an eternal incarnation of the
sacred law.” As priest or as guru (teacher), or in any occupation,
the Brahmin is “the highest on earth”; and “whatever exists in the
world is his property”; on account of the excellence of his
origin, he is entitled to all. A Brahmin, be he ignorant or
learned, is a great divinity. During Hindu festivals in India, the
-’holy men” (sadhus, sannyasis and yogis–all Brahmins) march along
naked, hundreds strong, and after they have passed, the people run
to scoop up the dust made sacred by their foot-prints, that they
may rub it on themselves.37
Kshatriyas:
Second in importance is the caste of Kshatriyas which comprises
nobles, rulers, kings, rajas, warriors, generals, feudals.
Vaishyas:
In
the third group is the caste of Vaishyas who are the Commoners.
They comprise peasants, farmers, merchants, traders, artisans and
professionals.
Shudras:
At
the lowest ladder of the caste hierarchy lies the class of Shudras.
It constitutes a vast majority of the people who are servants,
menial labourers, daily wage-earners.
These four
castes are subdivided into hundreds of sub-castes and thus more
than two thousand levels of castes have appeared in Hindu society.
Outcastes:
Outside this caste system are the ‘outcastes’ (sometimes also
considered fifth class) which are a vast body of people, estimated
at 20% of the Hindu community. These people are regarded
untouchable and are held to pollute the higher castes through mere
proximity and hence required to live in separate townships or
villages. They are frequently denied excess to wells, roads,
schools and temples used by the higher castes and are forbidden by
religious law to read or hear the recitation of the scriptures.
Gandhi called them Harijans (people of god) and tried to restore
them to caste status. Lately Indian parliament has abolished the
social taboos and restrictions against this class by law.
The class of
so-called “untouchables” or “out-castes” (recently abolished by
Indian law) was composed of people who had originally belonged to
different sub-groups of the fourth caste, the masses. Through
various social and economic conditions, they “lost caste,” or lost
their place in society.38
Caste is
hereditary, and it is not possible to transfer from the caste in
which one is born to another. Neither can a non-Hindu individual
ordinarily become a member of a Hindu caste, though under certain
conditions a group can slowly enter the system as a new caste. The
caste system prescribes strict regulations concerning marriage,
which must usually be within the caste but outside the immediate
family or clan and eating, which is subject to taboos and
complicated rules respecting the acceptance of food and drink from
members of other castes; and many other phases of human
relationship.39
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The six orthodox
schools or systems of Hindu philosophy appeared during 500 B.C. to
500 A.D. In subsequent period they underwent many changes to
improve. In the traditional order their names are: Nyaya;
Vaisheska; Sankhya; Yoga; Purva-Mimamsa, and Vedanta. These are
briefly described as under:
1. Nyaya system
deals with logic and is based upon a text ascribed to some Gautama.
2. Vaisheska system concerns the nature of universe.
3. Sankhya System: It is atheistic in nature and is believed to have influenced teachings
of Buddhism and Jainism. It was founded by Kapila who was born at
Kapilavastu where Gautama Buddha was born almost a century later.
4. Yoga system:
It is a set of mental and physical exercises designed to free the
soul from reliance on the body so that it can unite with Brahman.
It was greatly developed by Patanjali, a yogi who lived in second
century A.D.
5. Purva Mimamsa
rationalizes
Vedic fundamentalism. It defines literal meaning and applications
of the Vedas. The school regards the Vedas as authorless, self
revealed and eternal. Its founder was Jaimini.
According to
the Purva Mimamsa the world exists throughout eternity and is
not subject to recurrent dissolution and re-creation. The system
accepts the reality of both the soul and the material world.
There are two kinds of acts. The first consists of those
ordained by the Vedas. These are the Vedic sacrifices; by doing
them one obtains heaven. The other consists of prohibited acts.
By doing them and abstaining from ordained acts, one suffers a
future life in misery.40
6.
Vedanta System: More than any other, this system is the lineal
descendant of the philosophic
speculations
of the late Rig Veda and the Upanishads. Its basic textbook, by
Badarayana, composed possibly around the beginning of the
Christian era, is called Brahmasutra (“treatise on Brahma”)
Vedantasutra, Uttarami-mamsasutra, or sarirakasutra and consists
of aphorisms in themselves unintelligible and meant to be
accompanied by a commentary, The celebrated Shankara, whose dates
are uncertain but who was living around 800 A.D., was the author
of the earliest surviving commentary on the Brahmasutra. He taught
unqualified monism.41
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Ahimsa:
Hinduism has taken over principle of Ahimsa i.e. non-injury to
livings from Jainism. Hindus who strictly adhere to this principle
abandon meat–eating and become vegetarian. Mahatma Gandhi evolved
his philosophy of non-violence from principle of Ahimsa. The
doctrine of Ahimsa applies not only to mankind but also to the
animal world specially demanding protection of bovines which hold
a position of peculiar sanctity in Hinduism. Acts violating this
principle constitute offence against religion but may be absolved
by paying penalties or by performing certain expiatory rituals.
Atman:
Atman is your soul or your spirit or inner self; whereas atman or
heart of the universe is Brahman. A person can know Brahman only
by knowing himself or his Atman. A Hindu saying is: “He who knows
himself shall know God.” One of the sacred writings describes it
in this way:
“The spirit
within me is smaller than a mustard seed. The spirit within me is
greater than this earth and sky and the heaven and all these
united. It is Brahman.”
Brahman expresses
itself through many ways in man, through the Atman. When a man
truly knows the Atman, then he may know Brahman. When he knows
both, he sees that Atman and Brahman are united. And man realizes
the supreme knowledge, gains the supreme happiness. All the
creatures and creations of the earth are the same, bound up in
inclusive Brahman. There is no diversity, no real difference in
any part of reality. All are the same. All are one. “It is
Brahman.”42
The universal
desire to be reunited with the absolute (the Atman or Brahma) can
be satisfied by following the path of knowledge. Life is a cycle
of lives (samsara) in which man’s destiny is determined by his
deeds (karma) from which he may seek release (moksa) through
ascetic practices or the discipline of Yoga (q.v.). Failure to
achieve release means reincarnation–migration to a higher or lower
form of life after death–until the ultimate goal of absorption in
the absolute is reached.43
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1- Pear’s Cyclopedia
2- Encyclopedia Americana
3,
4- Collier’s Encyclopedia
5,
6- World Book Encyclopedia
7 to
9- Collier’s Encyclopedia
10,
11- Islam and World Religions
12 to
15- Collier’s Encyclopedia
16- Encyclopedia Americana
17 to
21- Collier’s Encyclopedia
22- Encyclopedia Americana
23,
24- World Book Encyclopedia
25- Encyclopedia Americana
26,
27- Collier’s Encyclopedia
28- World Book Encyclopedia
29- Collier’s Encyclopedia
30- Encyclopedia Americana
31 to
36- Collier’s Encyclopedia
37- Islam and World Religions
38- Great Religions By Which Men Live
39 to
41- Encyclopedia Americana
42- Great Religions By Which Men Live
43- Pear’s Cyclopedia
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